Human Factors in Traffic Safety, Second Edition

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Author: Robert E. Dewar, Paul L. Olson
ISBN 10: 1-933264-24-1
ISBN 13: 978-1-933264-24-0
Copyright Date Ed: May 2, 2007
Pages: 552 pages
Binding Information: Paperback
Size: 8.5 ✕ 11 Inches (US)

There are more than 175 million licensed drivers in the United States. Combined with the many pedestrians, bicyclists, motorcyclists, and other road users, this creates an interesting mix of elements with very different characteristics. Moving these elements efficiently and safely to their destinations presents a major challenge, particularly in densely populated areas. This book will provide guidance in how to identify these elements in your collision investigations. The authors introduce you to the ways in which designers of vehicles and roadways historically often did not take into account the full range of road user characteristics. The book discusses the substantial improvements in design principles and standards achieved over the years due to the concerted effort by concerned individuals interested in roadway and vehicle design and its impact on traffic safety.

Most importantly, this book introduces you to the behavior of the road user. Driver limitations and driver or pedestrian error are the major factors in traffic accidents, contributing to about 90% of roadway crashes. Driver behavior, however, is often the most complex and yet least understood element in the roadway system. A wide variety of perspectives on human factors and driver behavior are covered ranging from the design of roads, vehicles and traffic control devices to emotional and motivational determinants of driver behavior. Many traffic safety experts have contributed to this book in order to give you a comprehensive introduction to human factors as it pertains to driver and pedestrian behavior and traffic safety. This new edition has been extensively revised, and contains new chapters on driver education and driver distraction. If you are involved with accident investigation or the promotion of traffic safety in any capacity, this book is an essential part of your library.

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TOPICS INCLUDE

The driving task
Accident causation and remediation
Perception and information processing
Driver perception-response time
Driver eye fixations
Fatigue and driving
Alcohol, drugs and medications
Age differences of drivers
Other individual differences of drivers
Neuropsychological, medical, and psychiatric disorders affecting motor vehicle operations
Driver distraction
Driver education
Vehicle design
Visibility with motor vehicle headlamps and under roadway lighting
The roadway environment
Roadway design
Traffic control devices
Environmental factors
Railroad grade crossing accidents
Work zone accidents
Pedestrians, bicyclists, and other types of motorized and non-motorized vehicles
Left turn and gap acceptance crashes
Single-vehicle accidents
Eyewitness reliability: The cognitive psychology of human memory
Human factors in traffic accident litigation

Chapter 1: Introduction
1.1 Human Factors
1.2 The Driving Task
1.3 System Elements
1.4 The Investigation of Motor Vehicle Accidents 6

Part I: The Driver

Chapter 2: Perception and Information Processing
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Perception
2.3 Perception of the Road
2.4 Visual Search
2.5 The Perception of Speed
2.6 Car Following
2.7 Rear-end Collisions.
2.8 Auditory and Other Sensory Information
2.9 Information Processing and Accidents
2.10 Driver Attention and Workload
2.11 Steering
2.12 Positive Guidance

Chapter 3: Driver Perception-Response Time
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Background
3.3 Human Perception-Response Time
3.4 Decision Sight Distance
3.5 Overview of Research
3.6 Factors Affecting Perception-Response Time
3.7 Special Situations
3.8 Summary and Conclusions

Chapter 4: Where Do Drivers Look While Driving (and for How Long)?
4.1 How Is Glance Behavior Described?
4.2 Why Are Eye Fixations of Interest?
4.3 What Is Typical Looking Behavior?
4.4 How Is Glance Behavior Affected by the Road Environment?
4.5 How Does Glance Behavior Change with Driver Characteristics?
4.6 What Is the Impact of Vehicle Characteristics on Glance Behavior?
4.7 How Might In-Vehicle Devices Impact Driving?
4.8 Conclusions
4.9 A Final Thought

Chapter 5: Individual Differences
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Personality
5.3 Emotions
5.4 Impact on Victims and Families
5.5 Stress
5.6 Aggressive Driving and "Road Rage"
5.7 Motivation
5.8 Risk Taking
5.9 Self-Assessment of Driving Skills
5.10 Behavioral Compensation
5.11 Social Factors
5.12 Driver Attitudes
5.13 Gender Differences
5.14 Driving Experience
5.15 Physical Factors and Motor Skills
5.16 Conclusions

Chapter 6: Fatigue and Driving
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Long Hours
6.3 Time of day
6.4 Inadequate Sleep
6.5 Countermeasures to Sleepiness
6.6 Conclusion

Chapter 7: Alcohol and Drugs
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Alcohol Use While Driving
7.3 Alcohol and Accidents
7.4 Single Vehicle Collisions
7.5 Measures of Intoxication
7.6 Driving Abilities Impaired by Alcohol
7.7 Rate of Alcohol Consumption
7.8 Alcohol and Fatigue
7.9 Alcohol and Aggression
7.10 Alcohol and Degree of Injury
7.11 Drug Effects

Chapter 8: Age Differences-Drivers Young and Old
8.1 Older Drivers
8.2 Young Drivers
8.3 Conclusion

Chapter 9: Neuropsychological, Medical and Psychiatric Disorders and Motor Vehicle Operations
9.1 Our Right to Drive and Our Right to be Safe: Two Competing Interests
9.2 Regulatory and Legal Factors Relating to Disability and Automobile Driving
9.3 The Americans with Disability Act and Constitutional Analysis
9.4 Failure to Warn and the Special Relationship of Healthcare Providers
9.5 Risk Assessment, Risk Communication, and Risk Management
9.6 Accident Risk Associated With Neuropsychological and General Medical Disorders
9.7 Adaptive Driving Programs And Medical Decisions
9.8 Assessment Issues
9.9 Conclusions
9.10 Agencies of Interest

Chapter 10: Driver Distraction
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Definitions of Driver Distraction
10.3 What is the Scope of the Driver Distraction Problem?
10.4 Cell Phones and Driving
10.5 Other In-Vehicle Distractions
10.6 External Distractions
10.7 Countermeasures for Driver Distraction
10.8 Conclusions

Chapter 11: Driver Education, Training, and Licensing
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Background
11.3 Traditional Driver Education
11.4 What We Know
11.5 Perception and Cognition
11.6 Language
11.7 Graduated Driver Licensing (GDL)
11.8 Parental Involvement
11.9 New Directions
11.10 The Paradigmatic Shift
11.11 Conclusion

Part II: The Vehicle

Chapter 12: Vehicle Design
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Requirements of the Driving Task
12.3 Anthropometry
12.4 Controls
12.5 Displays
12.6 Visibility from Within the Vehicle
12.7 Visibility of Other Vehicles
A. Daytime-running lights
B. Emergency vehicles
12.8 Trucks
12.9 Traffic Control Devices Relevant to Truck Operators
12.10 Motorcycles
12.11 Agricultural Vehicles
12.12 All-Terrain Vehicles
12.13 Vehicle Size and Safety
12.14 Safety Belts
12.15 Antilock Brake Systems
12.16 In-Vehicle Information Systems (IVIS)
12.17 Noise
12.18 Vibration
12.19 Older Drivers
12.20 Driving Vehicles of the Future
12.21 Conclusion

Chapter 13: Visibility with Motor Vehicle Headlamps
13.1 Introduction
13.2 The Importance of Target Contrast
13.3 The Reflectivity of Objects in the Real World
13.4 Driver Vision at Night
13.5 Nighttime Driving Speeds
13.6 Overdriving of Headlamps
13.7 Overview

Part III: The Roadway Environment

Chapter 14: Roadway Design
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Perception of the Road
14.3 Highway Hypnosis
14.4 Driver Workload and Roadway Design
14.5 Sight Distance
14.6 Roadway Width
14.7 Grades
14.8 Intersections
14.9 Bridges
14.10 Roundabouts
14.11 Curves
14.12 Rural Roads
14.13 Safety Countermeasures
14.14 Road Design and Accident Litigation
14.15 Conclusion

Chapter 15: Traffic Control Devices
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Criteria for Effective TCDs
15.3 Problems with TCDs
15.4 Signs
15.5 Signals
15.6 Pavement Markings
15.7 Rumble Strips and Speed Bumps
15.8 Post Delineators
15.9 Supplemental Warning Information
15.10 Environmental Factors
15.11 Aging and TCD Effectiveness
15.12 Cross-Cultural Comprehension of TCDs
15.13 Compliance with Traffic Control Devices
15.14 Methods for the Evaluation of TCDs
15.15 Conclusion

Chapter 16: Visibility Under Roadway Lighting
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Definitions and Concepts
16.3 Performance of Roadway Lighting
16.4 History of Criteria and Standards for Roadway Lighting
16.5 Types of Roadway Lighting
16.6 Methods for Assessing Roadway Lighting
16.7 Summary

Chapter 17: Environmental Factors
17.1 Introduction
17.2 The Hours of Darkness
17.3 Twilight
17.4 Adverse Weather
17.5 Effects of Restricted Visibility
17.6 Driver Behavior in Fog
17.7 Conclusion

Chapter 18: Railroad Grade Crossing Accidents
18.1 Introduction
18.2 The Accident Picture
18.3 Driver Behavior at Grade Crossings
18.4 Driver Perception of Railroad Crossing Hazards
18.5 Decision Errors
18.6 Attempting to "Beat the Train" Across the Tracks
18.7 Traffic Control Devices
18.8 Pedestrian Safety
18.9 Countermeasures
18.10 Conclusion

Chapter 19: Highway Work Zones
19.1 Human Factors and Work Zones
19.2 Accidents in Work Zones
A. Problems with accident data
B. The accident picture
19.3 Driver Information in Work Zones
19.4 Speed Selection and Control
19.5 Nighttime Conditions
19.6 Driver Behavior and Opinions
19.7 Older Drivers
19.8 Pedestrians in Work Zones
19.9 Trucks in Work Zones
19.10 Lane and Shoulder Width
19.11 Traffic Control Devices
19.12 ITS Applications in Work Zones
19.13 Safety Countermeasures
19.14 Conclusions

Part IV: Accident Causation and Remediation

Chapter 20: Pedestrians and Bicyclists
20.1 Pedestrian Safety
20.2 The Pedestrian's Task
20.3 Pedestrian Accidents
20.4 Driver and Pedestrian Behavior
20.5 Distracted Pedestrians
20.6 Alcohol Use
20.7 Left-turning Accidents
20.8 Walking Speed
20.9 Disabled Pedestrians
20.10 Older Pedestrians
20.11 Child Pedestrians
20.12 Nighttime Conditions
20.13 Winter Conditions
20.14 Social Factors
20.15 Roadway Design
20.16 Pedestrian Signs, Signals, and Markings
20.17 Intelligent Transportation Systems and Pedestrian Safety
20.18 Safety Countermeasures
20.19 Bicycle Safety
20.20 Cyclists' Perception of Risk
20.21 Cyclists' Behavior
20.22 Older Cyclists
20.23 Road and Environment Factors
20.24 ITS and Bicycle Safety
20.25 Other Non-motorized Transportation Modes
20.26 Conclusion

Chapter 21: Left-Turn and Gap Acceptance Crashes
21.1 Introduction
21.2 Definitions and Task Analysis
21.3 Left-turn Crash Patterns
21.4 Gap Acceptance Crash Patterns
21.5 Motorcycles, Small Vehicles, Bicycles, and Pedestrians
21.6 Age Differences in Left-turn and Gap Acceptance Crashes
21.7 Driver Citations and Error
21.8 Left Turn Driving Simulation and Field Studies
21.9 Gap Acceptance Studies
21.10 Perception of Oncoming and Cross Traffic
21.11 Signals and Intersection Design
21.12 Conclusions

Chapter 22: Single-Vehicle Accidents
22.1 Introduction
22.2 Characteristics
22.3 Suicide?
22.4 Remedial Measures
22.5 Summary

Chapter 23: Eyewitnesses to Accidents: The Factors that Determine Accuracy
23.1 Introduction
23.2 Observing and Encoding Events into Memory
23.3 Retaining the Memory for Observed Events
23.4 Forgetting of Memory
23.5 How to Improve Recall
23.6 Memory for Everyday and Unusual Events Differs in Accuracy
23.7 Do Some People Have Better Memories than Others?
23.8 The Surprising Lack of a Relationship between Confidence and Accuracy
23.9 When Are Two Witnesses Better than One?
23.10 Summary

Chapter 24: Human Factors in Traffic Accident Litigation
24.1 Introduction
24.2 The Profession
24.3 Hazards in Vehicle Operation
24.4 Designing for Whom?
24.5 Admissibility of Evidence from a Human Factors Expert
24.6 What the Human Factors Expert has to Offer the Lawyer
24.7 Locating Suitably Qualified Human Factors Experts

Paul L. Olson

Humans are the control element in every type of transportation system. In this capacity humans are remarkably capable and adaptable, yet they do have limits. In the design of any mechanical system, engineers must take into account the characteristics of materials so that the end product will perform as expected. Similarly, if humans play a significant role in the performance of that system it is vital that design take into account their capabilities and limitations as well. There is a significant gap in communication between researchers and persons having a direct involvement in litigation. People such as reconstructionists and attorneys often have a very real need for information such as the authors of this book have produced, but it is typically buried in technical reports and journals to which they do not have ready access. This book is an attempt to bridge that gap.

Ergonomics in Design

The Editors and 11 contributors present 22 chapters addressing driver, vehicle, roadway, crash investigation, and crash prevention issues. Topics include driver information processing, response time, driver eye glances, individual differences, fatigue, alcohol, age differences, medical disorders, vehicle design, visibility from vehicles, roadway design, traffic control devices, roadway lighting and visibility, environmental factors, railroad grade crossings, highway work zones, pedestrians and bicyclists, left turns and gap acceptance, single-vehicle crashes, the cognitive psychology of human memory relevant to eye witness testimony, and traffic crash litigation. This is perhaps the perfect text for a graduate-level course in traffic safety human factors. Much of the book focuses on the causation of various crash types, or issues that might be encountered during the investigation, reconstruction, and litigation of traffic crashes. The main theme is traffic crash investigation, but the book also includes more fundamental and comprehensive coverage of driver performance and related vehicle, roadway, and "operational" system design. Most of the chapters contain in-depth and current research literature reviews, as well as detailed discussion of selected empirical studies. If conducting a graduate seminar, one might assign selected chapters for review and exploration of specific research issues. The text also functions well as a desk reference; it is well indexed, and each chapter contains a synopsis of sections and subsections as an "advance organizer." Well-titled and formatted section and subsection headings in the text further add to ease of use for the reader. Every chapter provides valuable information and reference documentation to both researchers and practitioners. My favorite was "Why Witnesses to Accidents Make Mistakes; the Cognitive Psychology of Human Memory," by Ralph Norman Haber and Lyn Haber. The chapter examines factors affecting the accuracy of the initial observation, encoding, and later recall of traffic crashes by eyewitnesses. The chapter is fascinating and provides ample evidence that adroit crash reconstructionists and litigators must understand the vagaries of human perception, attention, retention, and recall when seeking accurate and favorable witness testimony. Having spent six years focusing on motor carrier safety, and regulatory and operational issues relevant to commercial drivers, I was disappointed that no chapter focused on this topic. Large truck crashes represent a significant portion of the overall crash picture, and, more important, there are many operational or macroergonomic forces affecting commercial driver performance and behavior in their jobs. Like car drivers, truck drivers operate a vehicle in a roadway environment. But they also perform and strive for success within an operational environment of work requirements, conditions, incentives, and regulations. System motivational forces such as pay-bythe-mile may exert an influence on commercial driver performance that is equivalent to, or perhaps greater than, the conventional ergonomics effects of various vehicle and roadway designs. A chapter addressing the macroergonomics of commercial driving - that is, the humanjol7 interface - would have been an excellent complement to the fine coverage of human-machine and human environment issues in this text. The chapters on various crash types (e.g., pedestrian/bicyclist, left turn/gap acceptance, single-vehicle, fatigue related, alcohol-related) are explicit acknowledgments that crash causation is not one human factors topic but many. An important missing crash type, from a human factors perspective, is the rear-end crash, for although these result in relatively few fatalities, rear-end crashes are the most common major crash type and are increasing in number because of increased traffic congestion. They offer a superb baseline linear model of collision dynamics and associated driver attention and performance, response to threat, and potential safety intervention. These omissions are minor considering the broad range of topics addressed and the comprehensive, authoritative coverage found in the many chapters in this book. Human Factors and Traffic Safety is a major contribution, both to the ergonomics literature as a whole and to traffic safety practice.

Robert E. Dewar

It's important to understand the limitations of drivers, pedestrians and cyclists, and to incorporate this into the design of vehicles, roads, traffic control devices and so on. People are generally unaware of their own limitations and the problems faced by those using the highway system. Most people think that driving a motor vehicle is pretty easy, but it is not as evidenced by the many driver errors and traffic collisions that we see. It is a complex task. This book breaks new ground by incorporating some nontraditional disciplines such as neuropsychology, fatigue studies and eyewitness testimony. Much of this material is not well-known by people outside of psychology, and, even inside the field, many are not familiar with it. To our knowledge, no other book has presented such a wide variety of relevant topics applied to traffic safety.

Wisconsin Lawyer

The hallmark of a great general reference book for the busy practitioner is ease of use combined with practical application and sufficient technical information to assist in finding and cross-examining experts. For attorneys who practice in an area of the law that uses human factors experts, this book is an invaluable addition to the library. The field of human factors is described as "a scientific discipline concerned with the interaction of people and devices of various kinds." In this book, the focus is limited to the interaction of people and motor vehicles. The editors bring together all of the major human factors topics of concern to driving and traffic safety to show how the science of human factors contributes to traffic safety and how it is helpful to investigating motor vehicle collisions. [This book] has four distinct parts. Each part applies the science of human factors to traffic safety from a different perspective: the driver, the vehicle, the roadway environment, and accident causation and remediation. Each chapter within the four parts is written by experts in their respective fields. All of the chapters were reviewed by the editors, and most were also reviewed by outside experts. The book also suggests source material for further study. Such disparate topics as driver perception-response time, alcohol and drugs, roadway design, and visibility under roadway lighting are addressed. Despite the occasional instance of hypertechnicality, this book is a tremendous aid for busy practitioners. It provides enough information on disparate topics while maintaining a comfortable approachability to a filed of science that often is difficult to understand. As a primary source for information on human factors and its interaction with traffic safety, I highly recommend this book.